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The NuGOwiki Metabolite Database is a joint initiative of NuGO and HMDB
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| Iron | ||||||
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| Chemical Name | iron | |||||
| Chemical Formula | Fe | |||||
| CAS Number | 7439-89-6 | |||||
| Chemical Information | HMDB00692 | |||||
| Biochemical Taxonomy |
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| Functional Taxonomy |
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| Nutritional Taxonomy |
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| Metabolic Pathways | Not Available | |||||
| Biofluid Location |
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| Tissue Location |
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| Normal Biofluid Concentrations |
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| Normal Tissue Concentrations | Not Available | |||||
| Diseases / Conditions Related to Nutrition |
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| Other (Monogenic Disorders) |
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| Abnormal Biofluid Concentrations |
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| Abnormal Tissue Concentrations | Not Available | |||||
| Physiological Processes | Not Available | |||||
| Authors: | |
| Affiliations: |
Contents |
Introduction
guidelines
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. Iron makes up 5% of the Earth's crust and is second in abundance to aluminium among the metals and fourth in abundance among the elements. Iron (as Fe2+, ferrous ion) is a necessary trace element used by all known living organisms. Iron-containing enzymes, usually containing heme prosthetic groups, participate in catalysis of oxidation reactions in biology, and in transport of a number of soluble gases. Iron is an essential constituent of hemoglobin, cytochrome, and other components of respiratory enzyme systems. Its chief functions are in the transport of oxygen to tissue (hemoglobin) and in cellular oxidation mechanisms. Inorganic iron involved in redox reactions is also found in the iron-sulfur clusters of many enzymes, such as nitrogenase (involved in the synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen) and hydrogenase. A class of non-heme iron proteins is responsible for a wide range of functions such as ribonucleotide reductase (reduces ribose to deoxyribose; DNA biosynthesis) and purple acid phosphatase (hydrolysis of phosphate esters). When the body is fighting a bacterial infection, the body sequesters iron inside of cells (mostly stored in the storage molecule ferritin) so that it cannot be used by bacteria. Depletion of iron stores may result in iron-deficiency anemia. Iron is used to build up the blood in anemia. Humans experience iron toxicity above 20 milligrams of iron for every kilogram of weight, and 60 milligrams per kilogram is a lethal dose. Over-consumption of iron, often the result of children eating large quantities of ferrous sulfate tablets intended for adult consumption, is the most common toxicological cause of death in children under six. The DRI lists the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults as 45 mg/day. For children under fourteen years old the UL is 40 mg/day. Iron is a metal extracted from iron ore, and is almost never found in the free elemental state.
Biological Function
Catabolism
Diseases / Conditions Related to Nutrition
- Alzheimer's Disease
- Multiple Sclerosis
Other (Monogenic) Disorders
- Gracile syndrome OMIM: 603358
- Iron-handling disorder, hereditary OMIM: 206200
- Neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation, pla2g6-related OMIM: 610217
Nutritional Information
Markers of homeostasis and / or health
| Category | Markers | sign yes/no/? | I/D | S/I | ref | score |
| inflammation, immune response | CRP / hsCRP | No
No Yes No | -
- D - | S
S I I | 7 (!)
8 (!!) 17 (!!!) 20 | 3 |
| fibrinogen | No
Yes | -
I | S
S | 8 (!!)
24 | 2 | |
| Albumin | Yes | D | S | 4 | ? | |
| White blood cell count | No
No | -
- | S
I | 3
20 | 4 | |
| TNF-alpha | Yes | D | I | 20 | ? | |
| Il-6 | No | - | S | 8 (!!) | ? | |
| Il1-beta | ||||||
| Il-10 | ||||||
| Prostaglandin F2alpha | ||||||
| Prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) | ||||||
| Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) | ||||||
| Thromboxane B2 | ||||||
| Nitric Oxide (NO) | ||||||
| Serum Amyloid A (SAA) | ||||||
| NfkB | ||||||
| alpha1-antichymotrypsin | ||||||
| oxidative stress | 8(OH)-DG | |||||
| F2-isoprostanes | ||||||
| 8-iso-prostaglandin F2alpha | Yes | D | I | 20 (!!!!!) | ? | |
| oxidized LDL | No
No No | -
- - | I
S S & I | 2 (Fe diet suppl)
6 (!!!!) 10 | 4 | |
| SOD | Yes
No | D
- | S
I | 13
20 | 2 | |
| TBARS | Yes
Yes Yes No No | D
D D - - | S
S & I S I I | 5 (!!!!!)
12 (with MDA) 13 (with MDA) 18 (NS) 20 | 2 | |
| myeloperoxidase | ||||||
| nitrotyrosine | ||||||
| Metabolic stress | diastolic BP | No
Yes No Yes | -
D - I | S
S S I | 4
9 (!) 16 (!!) 23 | 2 |
| systolic BP | No
No Yes Yes No Yes | -
- D D - I | S
S S S S I | 4
7 (!) 9 (!) 15 (!) 16 (!!) 23 | 2 | |
| total cholesterol | Yes
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes | D
D D D D D | S
S S S I S | 4
7 (!) 9 (!) 15 (!) 17 (!!!) 19 (!) | 4 | |
| LDL | No
Yes No Yes | -
D - D | S
S S S | 14 (NS)
15 (!) 16 (!!) 19 (!) | 2 | |
| HDL | Yes
No No No No | I
- - - - | S
S S S S | 4
7 (!) 11 (NS) 14 (NS) 16 (!!) | 3 | |
| HDL/TC | ||||||
| triglycerides | Yes
Yes Yes Yes Yes | D
D D D D | S
S S S S | 5 (!)
7 (!) 9 (!) 11 (!!!!!!) 15 (!) 19 (!) | 4 | |
| homocysteine | Yes | I | I | 22 | ? | |
| tPA/PAI-1 | ||||||
| Fibrin fragment D-dimer | ||||||
| Factor VIIa | ||||||
| sICAM | ||||||
| Monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP1) | ||||||
| fasting glucose | Yes
Yes Yes Yes | D
D D D | S
S S S | 7 (!)
11 (!!!!!!) 19 (!) 21 (female only) | 4 | |
| fasting insulin | Yes | D | S | 7 (!) | ? | |
| OGTT | ||||||
| insulin tolerance test | Yes
No Yes | D
- D | S
S S | 1 (corr plasma Fe)
3 (corr serum Fe) 11 (!!!!!!) | 2 | |
| HbA1c | ||||||
| fructosamine |
(!) Correlated with ferritin; significant stable; (!!) Correlated with ferritin; not stable; (!!!) Significant correlated with ferritin, but not stable for Fe; (!!!!) Correlated with different measures of Fe; (!!!!!) for 2/3 of subjects only; (!!!!!!) ferritin, men & postmenopausal women)
- Barbieri M, Ragno E, Benvenuti E, et al. New aspects of the insulin resistance syndrome: impact on haematological parameters. Diabetologia 2001;44:1232-7.
- Binkoski AE, Kris-Etherton PM, Beard JL. Iron supplementation does not affect the susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification in women with low iron status. J Nutr 2004;134:99-103.
- Choi KM, Lee J, Kim YH, et al. Relation between insulin resistance and hematological parameters in elderly Koreans-Southwest Seoul (SWS) Study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2003;60:205-12.
- Corti MC, Guralnik JM, Salive ME, et al. Serum iron level, coronary artery disease, and all-cause mortality in older men and women. Am J Cardiol 1997;79:120-7.
- Craig WY, Poulin SE, Palomaki GE, Neveux LM, Ritchie RF, Ledue TB. Oxidation-related analytes and lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in healthy subjects. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1995;15:733-9.
- Derstine JL, Murray-Kolb LE, Yu-Poth S, Hargrove RL, Kris-Etherton PM, Beard JL. Iron status in association with cardiovascular disease risk in 3 controlled feeding studies. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:56-62.
- Ford ES, Cogswell ME. Diabetes and serum ferritin concentration among U.S. adults. Diabetes Care 1999;22:1978-83.
- Forouhi NG, Harding AH, Allison M, et al. Elevated serum ferritin levels predict new-onset type 2 diabetes: results from the EPIC-Norfolk prospective study. Diabetologia 2007;50:949-56.
- Galan P, Noisette N, Estaquio C, et al. Serum ferritin, cardiovascular risk factors and ischaemic heart diseases: a prospective analysis in the SU.VI.MAX (SUpplementation en VItamines et Mineraux AntioXydants) cohort. Public Health Nutr 2006;9:70-4.
- Iribarren C, Sempos CT, Eckfeldt JH, Folsom AR. Lack of association between ferritin level and measures of LDL oxidation: the ARIC study. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities. Atherosclerosis 1998;139:189-95.
- Jehn M, Clark JM, Guallar E. Serum ferritin and risk of the metabolic syndrome in U.S. adults. Diabetes Care 2004;27:2422-8.
- King SM, Donangelo CM, Knutson MD, et al. Daily supplementation with iron increases lipid peroxidation in young women with low iron stores. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2008;233:701-7.
- Lasheras C, Gonzalez S, Huerta JM, Braga S, Patterson AM, Fernandez S. Plasma iron is associated with lipid peroxidation in an elderly population. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2003;17:171-6.
- Mainous AG, 3rd, Wells BJ, Koopman RJ, Everett CJ, Gill JM. Iron, lipids, and risk of cancer in the Framingham Offspring cohort. Am J Epidemiol 2005;161:1115-22.
- Penckofer S, Schwertz D. Improved iron status parameters may be a benefit of hormone replacement therapy. J Womens Health Gend Based Med 2000;9:141-51.
- Rauramaa R, Vaisanen S, Mercuri M, Rankinen T, Penttila I, Bond MG. Association of risk factors and body iron status to carotid atherosclerosis in middle-aged eastern Finnish men. Eur Heart J 1994;15:1020-7.
- Root MM, Hu J, Stephenson LS, Parker RS, Campbell TC. Iron status of middle-aged women in five counties of rural China. Eur J Clin Nutr 1999;53:199-206.
- Ruivard M, Feillet-Coudray C, Rambeau M, et al. Effect of daily versus twice weekly long-term iron supplementation on iron absorption and status in iron-deficient women: a stable isotope study. Clin Biochem 2006;39:700-7.
- Say AE, Gursurer M, Yazicioglu MV, Ersek B. Impact of body iron status on myocardial perfusion, left ventricular function, and angiographic morphologic features in patients with hypercholesterolemia. Am Heart J 2002;143:257-64.
- Schumann K, Kroll S, Weiss G, et al. Monitoring of hematological, inflammatory and oxidative reactions to acute oral iron exposure in human volunteers: preliminary screening for selection of potentially-responsive biomarkers. Toxicology 2005;212:10-23.
- Shi Z, Hu X, Yuan B, Pan X, Meyer HE, Holmboe-Ottesen G. Association between serum ferritin, hemoglobin, iron intake, and diabetes in adults in Jiangsu, China. Diabetes Care 2006;29:1878-83.
- Shimakawa T, Nieto FJ, Malinow MR, Chambless LE, Schreiner PJ, Szklo M. Vitamin intake: a possible determinant of plasma homocyst(e)ine among middle-aged adults. Ann Epidemiol 1997;7:285-93.
- Tzoulaki I, Brown IJ, Chan Q, et al. Relation of iron and red meat intake to blood pressure: cross sectional epidemiological study. BMJ 2008;337:a258.
- Vorster HH, Jerling JC, Steyn K, et al. Plasma fibrinogen of black South Africans: the BRISK study. Public Health Nutr 1998;1:169-76.
Determinants of status
| Category | Determinants of status | sign yes/no/? help | independent of intake yes/no/? |
| general | gender | Yes | Yes |
| age (adults) | Yes | Yes | |
| age (children) | Yes | Yes | |
| ethnicity | Yes | Yes | |
| physiological status | polymorphisms | ? | ? |
| pregnancy | Yes | Yes | |
| lactation | ? | ? | |
| menopause | Yes | Yes | |
| physical fitness | ? | ? | |
| gut flora | ? | ? | |
| anthropometric variables | body weight | ? | ? |
| BMI | Yes | Yes | |
| waist circumference | ? | ? | |
| fat free mass | ? | ? | |
| Lifestyle variables | smoking | Yes | Yes |
| physical activity | ? | ? | |
| alcohol use | Yes | Yes | |
| medication use (incl. contraceptive pill) | Yes | Yes | |
| stress | ? | ? |
Note: This is a compilation for different biomarkers of Fe status; each individual biomarker may be influenced differently by the determinants From: Gibson, R.S., Principles of Nutritional Assessment, 2nd Edition, 2005